By Steve Lee

For as long as I can remember, “Mountain Grown” has been used as a marketing term to signal superior coffee quality. In the 1960s, Folger’s Coffee popularized the phrase in television commercials across the United States with declarations like: “Mountain Grown? Well, that’s the best coffee. The richest kind.” At the time, coffee was primarily sold in grocery stores by large commercial brands, and quality differentiation was much simpler—higher elevation meant better coffee.

Fast-forward 60 years and coffee marketing has evolved into a complex web of flavor notes, processing methods and technical specifications. As the specialty coffee industry has grown, authenticity and differentiation have become key selling points, with detailed information now serving as the new marketing language. Today’s coffee labels often include the country of origin, farm name, variety, processing method and elevation. Many coffee importers and farmers supply this information to prospective customers and post it on their websites.

Even with this wealth of information, elevation is still widely assumed to be an indicator of quality. But what does it really tell us? How does it impact bean density, flavor, and approaches to roasting? More importantly, is it still a reliable metric for assessing coffee quality?

While elevation can provide useful context, its true significance lies in its influence on bean density—one of the most critical factors affecting both flavor and roast behavior.

*The idea that coffee grown at higher elevations tastes better dates back decades, popularized by brands like Folger’s in the mid-20th century.*

WHY DOES DENSITY MATTER?

Coffee grown at higher elevations matures more slowly due to cooler temperatures and reduced oxygen availability. This slower maturation process allows the beans toretain more sugar, nutrients and organic acids, resulting in denser beans.

A study published in the International Journal of Horticulture, Agriculture and Food Science in 2021, titled “Effect of Different Altitudes in Qualitative and Quantitative Attributes of Green Coffee Beans (Coffea arabica) in Nepal,” examined seven elevation ranges from 800 to 1,500 meters above sea level (MASL). Findings revealed that higher-grown coffees, particularly those grown between 1,400 and 1,500 MASL, produced coffee cherries with greater weights, resulting in denser green beans.

The study found a significant correlation between elevation and bean density, with the highest mean density (687.5±8.18 kg/m3, which means a bean density of 687.5 kilograms per cubic meter, with a margin of error of 8.18 kilograms per cubic meter) recorded in the 1,400 to 1,500 MASL range, while the lowest density (619.75±13.72 kg/m3) was observed at 800 to 900 MASL. The researchers noted that higher elevations are associated with cooler temperatures, which can slow the maturation process, allowing more time for bean development and leading to a denser structure.

As Chris Kornman, director of education at Royal Coffee, explains, “Coffee tends to ripen slower at higher elevations due to the bigger difference between day and nighttime temperatures, which usually produces denser beans. It stresses the tree a little, and when the tree is under stress, it prioritizes sending nutrients to its babies, the seeds inside its fruits, the little unroasted coffee beans.”

The slower metabolic processes of high-elevation coffee plants promote the accumulation of essential organic compounds that contribute to bright acidity and fruit-forward flavors. Photo by Juan José Sánchez Macías.

While temperature is often highlighted as a key factor, other environmental conditions at high altitudes, such as changes in light and oxygen exposure, may also contribute to this effect.

The slower metabolic processes of high-elevation coffee plants promote the accumulation of essential organic compounds, such as citric, malic and phosphoric acids, which contribute to bright acidity and fruit-forward flavors. Denser beans, with their more developed cellular structure, absorb heat more slowly at first but eventually transfer it more efficiently. This characteristic can lead to more uniform roasting and enhanced flavors.

The 2021 study also noted that consumer preference scores were highest for coffee from higher elevations, reinforcing the idea that high-elevation coffee is favored for its sensory attributes. The researchers concluded that elevations above 1,200 MASL are optimal for producing high-quality coffee in the study region, emphasizing the importance of elevation in shaping both the physical and sensory characteristics of coffee.

With density being a defining characteristic influenced by elevation, understanding how it impacts roasting is crucial for developing ideal flavor profiles. Let’s examine how various roasting methods adjust to different density characteristics.

*Coffee growing in the mountains of Jamaica.*

STRATEGIES FOR ROASTING COFFEE BASED ON DENSITY

Roasters use a variety of methods to measure bean density:

Volume-to-weight comparisons: Observing how much a fixed volume of coffee weighs compared to another batch.
Weighing specific volumes: Using tools like graduated cylinders to determine precise density measurements.
Specialized equipment: Devices such as density meters provide highly accurate readings.
Tracking density in roast logs: Keeping records of density in buying and roasting logs helps refine future roasting strategies.

Denser beans require a different approach in the roaster due to their higher cellular structure and slower heat penetration. They tend to absorb energy a bit more slowly to start; however, once they get going, “denser coffees are going to absorb and transfer heat internally more efficiently than less dense coffee,” says Ian Picco, COO of Topeca Coffee in Tulsa, Oklahoma. “Bean density plays an integral role in how heat transfers from the roasting environment to the seed, so in that sense, it does tend to drive the shape of the roasting curve and overall roast profile,” Picco adds.

Understanding how to adjust for these characteristics can help roasters develop optimal roast profiles. Generally, starting with a higher charge temperature, lower airflow, and a slightly lower gas setting will help to set the roast up for a profile that can maximize some of the acidity and enzymatic complexity typically associated with these coffees. Once color change begins, adding more heat to increase the rate of rise and shorten the total roast time will help to maintain a lot of the aromatics and volatiles.

During the 2018 U.S. Roasting Championship (USRC), Picco roasted an SL-34 variety grown higher than 1,500 MASL in El Salvador, coming away with first place in the competition. He developed a roast profile that accounted for the bean’s density by extending the drying phase and Maillard reaction to emphasize sweetness and body while maintaining aromatic complexity. He advises, “You [may] need to keep some heat in the drum while approaching first crack, as denser seeds also tend to contain more water, which equates to more moisture being released into the drum atmosphere, easily creating a stall. Don’t be afraid to punch it during the developmental phase with a high-elevation coffee. It can handle more heat being a denser seed. I find shooting a few degrees higher than normal for the drop temperature gets me the sweetness and complexity I’m looking for.”

When it’s not possible to test a coffee’s density—during a roasting competition, for example— knowing the growing elevation can help inform a roasting plan. Photo by Juan José Sánchez Macías.

Kornman says that elevation alone should not dictate roasting decisions. While high-elevation coffees often require more aggressive heat application early in the roast, a roaster’s overall flavor goal should guide the approach. “If coffees grown at high elevations are generally assumed to be higher in density and frequently associated with brighter, more acid-forward profiles and the inherent sweetness of slow-ripened fruits, then the roaster can strategize to capitalize on those strengths. A common strategy for this kind of bean would be a high heat, relatively quick roast with a light color score, intended for pour-over or single-origin espresso service,” he explains. “Conversely, if a lower-grown coffee can be assumed as lower in density and resulting in a flavor profile more attuned to lower perceived acidity, fuller mouthfeel, and with sugars perhaps more pleasant when caramelized, a roaster might strategize to roast this coffee with a slower, gentler heat application and focus on sugar browning, perhaps extending Maillard reaction stages, including deepening the final roast color.”

Rob Hoos, author, consultant, and owner of Rob Hoos Coffee Consulting and Iteration Coffee, cautions roasters to keep in mind that roast profiles can and should be guided by the overall desired outcomes of the roaster. “Even if higher-density coffee means you can roast it faster or apply more heat without causing roasting defects, … it doesn’t mean that you should roast it faster. There are considerations of cultivar, terroir, country of origin and desired outcome that may cause you to consider lower heat and/or longer roasting styles regardless of the density,” Hoos says. “… When it comes to considering how I will roast a coffee, my desired flavor outcome takes precedence over many other objective metrics where profile design is concerned. Objective measurements like density and moisture content may impact the way I drive my roaster to achieve my roast plan, but flavor drives the initial design.”

Kornman goes on to note that elevation is more of an artifact, and while it does provide some insight into a coffee bean, physical measurements will provide a lot more concrete knowledge. “If a coffee’s cultivated elevation is, in fact, a proxy for density, what the roaster is actually concerned with is more directly related to the physical property of their coffee bean, as it correlates, somewhat loosely, I might argue, to how high on a mountain it is grown,” he says. “My argument here is that the measurement of the bean itself, including density, but of course also considering moisture and water activity and screen size, plus taking into account processing method and numerous other factors, will likely inform a roaster better and more accurately about the character of their roast as it applies to any particular coffee than knowing the elevation at which it’s grown.”

In situations like roasting competitions, such as the World Coffee Roasting Championship, competitors are provided with green coffee and a set of information, such as origin, elevation, processing method and variety. It is not always possible to perform a detailed physical analysis, and knowing the elevation can be used as a decision-making tool for formulating a roasting plan. If all you know about a coffee is elevation, it would be fairly safe to assume that coffees grown at higher elevations would be denser. And understanding that denser coffees roast differently than less dense coffees can help to make better-informed decisions in the roaster.

As a very general starting point, denser coffees often benefit from a higher charge temperature, lower airflow and slightly lower initial gas setting to maximize acidityand complexity. Photo by Juan José Sánchez Macías.

THE IMPACTS OF ELEVATION ON FLAVOR AND QUALITY

As a roaster or buyer, you have certain expectations regarding flavor and quality when it comes to sourcing your green coffee offerings. Whether a coffee is to be featured as a single origin or to be used in a blend will have some bearing on what qualities and flavor notes you are looking for and what samples should be requested. Knowing the elevation at which a coffee is grown can be used as a good starting point for communicating across the supply chain and can help manage expectations.

If you are looking for a coffee with vibrant floral notes or lively acidity, elevation may be good to consider as a factor in your search. If you want a blender that needs more body than nuance or acidity, then the elevation may not be a key consideration.

According to Iliana Delgado Chegwin, head of international business for Exportadora de Café Isabelita in Colombia, “As the metabolic processes are slowed down, the plant is able to produce more of the different compounds it needs to result in a properly developed seed.” The production of more diverse organic compounds, she adds, provides the foundation for aromas and flavors in coffee. “This can’t easily be obtained at lower elevations.”

Chegwin adds that elevation is also a factor that is taken into account when choosing what varieties to plant. Some coffee varieties, such as Tekisic and (Panama) Geisha, exhibit excellent cup potential when grown at higher elevations. These coffees also tend to fetch high prices. So, if one is shopping for a more boutique coffee variety, the chances of it being grown further up the mountain are high.

*Latitude influences how elevation affects coffee development; 900 MASL in Hawaii has vastly different climatic conditions than 900MASL in Colombia or Ethiopia.*

It is important to note that the latitude of a coffee’s origin also influences how elevation affects its development. For example, 900 MASL in Hawaii has vastly different climatic conditions than 900 MASL in Colombia or Ethiopia, making elevation alone an unreliable quality metric. To put it another way, coffee grown at 1,200 MASL in Espirito Santo, Brazil, may have similar temperature ranges and growing conditions to those grown at 1,900 MASL in Guji, Ethiopia. So, elevation needs to be put into context as it relates to growing conditions and their effects on seed development.

A study titled “The Growing Altitude Influences the Flavor Precursors, Sensory Characteristics and Cupping Quality of the Pu’er Coffee Bean,” published in 2024 in the journal Foods, found that higher- elevation coffees tended to score better in cupping evaluations. These coffees exhibited lower bitterness and higher concentrations of volatile aromatic compounds, which contribute to a more vibrant and complex flavor profile. The study also found a decrease in alkaloids (such as caffeine and trigonelline) and chlorogenic acids (CGAs), which are often associated with bitterness. At the same time, higher levels of fatty acids contributed to enhanced aroma and texture, which may explain why high-elevation coffees often present smoother mouthfeels and more pronounced floral or fruity characteristics.

The study found that slower metabolic processes in high-elevation coffee plants allow for the accumulation of flavor precursors, which contribute to higher cup scores compared to lower-elevation coffees. It also revealed that as growing elevation increases, pyrazines and alcohols decrease, while aldehydes increase. This shift reduces nutty and roasted flavors, enhancing sweet sugar and caramel aromas. Overall, aroma and flavor improved with higher elevation, while other indicators remained largely unchanged.

*A 2024 study published in the journal Foods found that coffees grown at higher elevations tended to receive higher cupping scores.*

Similarly, a 2021 review in Frontiers in Plant Science titled “Climate Change and Coffee Quality: Systematic Review on the Effects of Environmental and Management Variation on Secondary Metabolites and Sensory Attributes of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora” confirmed that higher elevations, cooler temperatures and reduced light exposure consistently led to improved cup quality, with greater acidity and sweetness. The study emphasized that these environmental factors contribute to increased retention of organic acids, sugars and lipids, which significantly influence coffee’s sensory attributes.

The review also found that reduced light exposure at higher elevations plays a crucial role in extending bean development periods, further promoting complex chemical transformations within the coffee seed. This phenomenon enhances the expression of volatile compounds responsible for floral and fruity aromas, leading to a more distinctive and desirable flavor profile. On the other hand, the research underscored the potential risks associated with excessively high elevations, where prolonged exposure to extreme cold can lead to underdevelopment of coffee cherries, ultimately affecting cup quality in negative ways.

*Coffees grown at higher elevations tend to be denser than low-grown coffees, which has positive impacts on roasting behavior, flavor and more. Photo by Juan José Sánchez Macías.*

KEY TAKE-AWAYS

While elevation has long been a hallmark in the coffee industry, often associated with higher-quality beans, its significance as a standalone metric has become more nuanced. Elevation does offer valuable insight into a coffee’s potential, especially in terms of bean density and flavor complexity. However, it is not a catch-all indicator of quality. Higher elevations often correlate with denser beans, which can contribute to enhanced acidity, sweetness and complexity in the final cup. Other elements, such as moisture content, processing methods and the specific terroir of a region, all play crucial roles in shaping the final flavor profile as well. As roasting technology has advanced, it’s become clear that physical measurements—including density—are more directly relevant to how beans will perform during roasting than elevation alone.

For roasters, this means that while elevation can serve as a useful starting point, the ultimate goal should always be to taste and understand the coffee in its entirety. By combining scientific data with sensory evaluation, roasters can craft a roast that highlights the coffee’s unique characteristics. In the end, the most reliable approach to roasting is a balanced blend of objective analysis and a deep appreciation for the flavors that emerge through the roasting process, ensuring each cup tells the story of its origin.

***

STEVE LEE is a consultant with Pocket Knife Coffee based in Los Angeles. With almost 30 years of experience in the coffee industry, Lee has worked as a barista, roaster, green buyer, director of coffee, green importer and chief operations officer. He has worked and lived in Korea and has served as a judge for international coffee competitions in addition to serving two terms on the Roasters Guild Executive Council as the vice chair to the education committee and vice chair to the events committee, focused on creating content for the Roasters Guild origin trips.